I. INTRODUCTION
Audio-visual translation is multimodal in nature and, as defined by Chaume (2004), conveys information through two different channels of communication to transmit meaning simultaneously: the acoustic channel and the visual channel. Images, speech, and written texts are integrated to produce visual and auditory material in our society every day. And reliance on these audio-visual programs is growing rapidly as viewers look to these sources for entertainment, information, education, and advertisement.
As in many other professions, technical advancements have made a profound impact on the subtitling praxis. The profile expected of subtitle translators has changed substantially, and linguistic competence, cultural awareness, and subject knowledge are no longer sufficient to operate effectively and successfully in this profession. Would-be subtitle translators are expected to demonstrate high technical know-how and familiarity with increasingly more powerful subtitling software.
Audio-visual translation includes subtitling and dubbing, and the verbal dimension is, albeit the most important, just one of many elements. The concurring layers of audio-visual material—visual (images, gestures, written text, etc.) and auditory (dialogue, music, noise, etc.) inputs—make its translation particularly challenging. As contents portraying foreign cultures in different languages increase, subtitles assume a greater role in aiding the audience to acquire and access knowledge of the new world. Due to its relatively low production cost and speedy output compared to other types of translation, translated subtitles are “the preferred mode of AVT on the world wide web” (Díaz-Cintas, 2012, p. 288).
As a result, producing subtitles has made audio-visual translation an even more attractive means of translation nowadays, and the proliferation of contents which seek to be distributed to a global audience has further fueled the demand. Another factor contributing to the rapid spread and consumption of subtitles is the availability of subtitling and video-editing freeware. Subtitling is inherently tied to technology, and its recent advancements have made a considerable and immediate impact on the practice of subtitling. Thus, mastery of audio-visual translation technology is increasingly becoming an essential qualifier in the field of subtitle translation, and courses aiming at developing learners’ technological literacy, instrumental competence, and related professional skills are in high demand.
Naturally, as the public grows more accustomed to watching subtitled multimedia contents, the issue of subtitle quality control has become a key point of interest among subtitlers, subtitle service providers, and academics. And as audio-visual communication permeates all domains of our lives, subtitle translation and research related to this relatively new type of translation have witnessed exponential growth. However, the education community generally takes a longer time to catch up on the technical innovations triggered by the industry and to incorporate these changes in the classroom, resulting in an imbalance between the academia and real-world profession.
One reason behind such imbalance is the lack of collaboration between educators and the industry. This is particularly true of audio-visual translation, as translation education mainly focuses on the theoretical issues rather than current up-to-date professional practices. According to James (1998), subtitling training is not simply an academic pursuit. It demands “close collaboration with the commercial sector, particularly regarding issues such as subtitling conventions, national practice, and professional standards in general” (p. 255). For students to functionally operate in the field, exposure to technical instruments and the latest advances in the industry must be included in the curriculum.
The purpose of this study is to present a systematic learning platform in the classroom to prepare students for an emerging market that demands expertise and technological skills. Among the translation practices, students will focus on one of the key principles of translation - deverbalization and reformulation. Critical elements of subtitle translation such as condensation and segmentation help students focus on the “message,” as they are forced to break away from the work-for-word substitution in search for the gist of the original text so as to observe the editing requirements for the subtitles.
Flipped learning and task-based cooperative learning are also introduced as a way to incorporate new technological advancement into the audiovisual translation learning environment. Flipped learning is an effective instructional format to teach the technical skills required for subtitle translation (Kim, 2019). As already stated, subtitling adds an additional layer to traditional text translation—the use of editing software. This extra dimension often becomes a burden to students who are faced with an unfamiliar working platform on top of having to translate between languages which they have yet to fully master. The flipped classroom presents a learning format in which students may acquire new knowledge on a topic before engaging in classroom activities. As a result, class time is devoted to applying the knowledge to practical use through individual and/or collaborative work, and students get to internalize the knowledge they have learned before entering the classroom.
Subtitle tasks also present an optimal setting for implementing collaboration in the classroom. A course may start with students engaging in an individual task. As the work progresses, individual tasks are combined to produce a final output. By expanding the scope from an individual task to coordinated work comprised of tasks of other members, students naturally engage in active and constructive discussions and learn to cooperate with others to produce a final product (Talaván, 2010). In today’s culture, peer work utilizing collective intelligence is becoming more important, and subtitle translation offers the perfect setting for students to put this approach into practice.
The presentation of a step-by-step procession of the lesson may serve as a foundation for future lesson plans using diverse resources. This study will explore ways to achieve the following objectives through a comprehensive teaching plan: to familiarize students with key translation strategies (condensation, deverbalization, and reformulation); to incorporate task-based collaborative learning in the translation process; to include flipped learning as part of the learning process; to learn and apply relevant technological skills to create translated subtitles; to produce an output that serves an authentic purpose for real viewers.
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
1. Translation Strategies
1) Deverbalization and Reformulation
Among the tenets of translation, deverbalization and reformulation are difficult for learners especially in the beginning phase. According to the theory of interpretation, interpreting is not simply a direct conversion from the source language to the target language. Rather, it is a process of understanding meaning, constructing and reexpressing. According to the Interpretive Theory of Translation, the process of translation is divided into three stages: comprehension, deverbalization, and reformulation. Deverbalization, in particular, assumes a crucial role (Seleskovitch & Lederer, 1993). It involves a careful analysis of the original text and the production of an outcome similar to the original text when translated into the target text (Israël, 2004). Lederer (1999) further explained that deverblization is an independent step where meaning is abstracted from the form of the source language.
The audio-visual translation is known as translation of the “situation,” as the end-result is comprised of words that are faithful more to the context and the situation rather than to its definitional sense. It all but forces the students “to dismiss a word-for-word approach and to look for the main ideas being conveyed, rephrasing them in a way that sounds natural and does not jar with the image or the soundtrack of the original” (Díaz-Cintas, 2008, p.100). Thus, subtitle lessons in the translation classroom offer an excellent opportunity for students to practice one of the most fundamental but difficult principles of translation - deverbalization and reformulation (Kim, 2012). Students can no longer cling to the ever-so-tempting word-for-word translation strategy and must break away to focus on the intent and meaning of the original text (deverbalize) and produce a “re-formed” output.
Compared to translating printed texts, the audio-visual translation allows learners to feel more comfortable and become readily willing to dismantle and reshape the original text in order to focus on the message and deliver the gist of the message. Students get to search for the gist of the original text so as to observe the editing requirements for the subtitles. In other words, subtitle translation offers an ideal setting for students to practice deverbalization and reformulation as their work inevitably requires them to produce a translation that abides by length restrictions while preserving the original meaning.
2) Condensation
Anyone who has experience translating audio-visual material will agree that audio-visual translation is very different from print material translation. Whether it be translating for dubbing or subtitles, neither can avoid compromising the original material either through condensation or omission. The information loss in audio-visual translation is around 10% to 30% for dubbing and subtitling, respectively (Yoon & Kim, 2007). It is common practice in subtitling translation to partly or completely reduce dialogue, narrations, and text (i.e., condensed or omitted) so as to adhere to the spatial and time constraints and fit the text on the screen. The translator strives to grasp the idea or the message of the original text and produces a translation while fully applying the rule of economy.
Thus, it is the subtitler’s task to seek a balance between the audio and visual dimensions of the input. As is the case with all types of translation, subtitles are expected to convey the message of the original dialogue despite spatial and temporal constraints. Such constraints almost invariably result in a reduced form, making condensation a core strategy used by subtitlers and one of the most frequently discussed research topics in subtitle translation (Georgakopoulou, 2018).
As previously mentioned, subtitle translators must follow the basic principles shared with text translation and, at the same time, take into consideration the needs of the audience who must watch the screen, listen to a foreign language, and read the subtitle at the same time within a time frame of 4-6 seconds. Thus, the issue of readability takes on a different level of challenge in subtitle translation. While an all-encompassing rule for condensation does not exist, subtitlers use their own set of principles based on “relevance” (Bogucki, 2004) as they strive to capture the essence of what is said and to make sure that no crucial information is left out.
Condensing is not a process of simply cutting the original text short by omitting the message. Audio-visual translation requires the translator to carefully weigh alternatives until he/she can choose the most adequate and concise form to deliver the original meaning. Intelligent condensing preserves the essence of the original message, which is achieved through thorough comprehension of the source language and seasoned skills to identify the best expression (Lee, 2009). As Gottlieb rightly points out:
The idea of not reducing the text volume in subtitling would be counterproductive to optimal audience comprehension and result in poor translation. The point here is that a large part of the reduction (still found) in subtitling follows directly from its diasemiotic nature; the deletion or condensation of redundant oral features is necessary when crossing over from speech to writing-a language mode more concise than oral discourse. (Gottlieb, 2005, p. 19)
Thus, deverbalization and reformulation, the universal principle for all forms of translation, along with condensation are key skills in subtitle translation instruction, and a lesson plan whose pedagogical objective is to focus on practicing these three principles may help learners not only to learn subtitle translation but also put into practice one of the most difficult but important tenets of translation. This competence should be trained during the early stages of the lesson before students move on to the technical aspects of subtitle translation so as not to lose sight of the essence of translation, i.e., its linguacultural properties.
2. Task-Based Cooperative Learning
In general, cooperative/collaborative learning has long proved to be a strong facilitator of learning (Kagan, 1994). Students in subtitle groupwork come together to write, rewrite, edit, and discuss to present a final product created as a group. The final product is not the simple sum of individual assignments patched together. It is the result of active engagement and an end product that reflects the discussions and consensus reached by the group members. Da Silva and Fernandes (2016) concluded that translation group activity helps students share prior knowledge, reflect on and verbalize the translation process. Through the use of culture-specific texts, students not only engaged in discussions on the given text but also went beyond the fixed set of concepts, expanding to critical thinking.
In addition, the goal-directed nature of task-based instruction encourages communication and cooperation (Lightbrown & Spada, 1999). According to Nunan (2004), tasks are divided into two types: real-world task and pedagogical task. While the objective of the former is to help prepare students to acquire skills in the real world, the latter is a task which invites learners to comprehend, manipulate, and produce the target language. Both types can be implemented in the translation lesson to cultivate linguistics, encyclopedic knowledge and skills. Subtitle translation tasks fit both categories especially well in that students engage in a real-world task which can be presented as authentic material to a real audience while learning the language as well as cultural and world knowledge embedded in the audio-visual content.
The strength of task-based instruction for teaching and learning can be readily applied to translation education. In an attempt to move away from the “read and translate” directive (González Davies, 2004) which has dominated the translation classroom, task-based activities have been introduced to the translation classroom. Wang (2013) conducted a study to probe the efficacy of conducting a cooperative translation task in the classroom. Students took part of the Cooperative Translation Tasks (CoTT) which includes five sessions divided into three stages (Pre-presentation Stage, Presentation Stage, and Post-presentation Stage). An analysis of the interview with teachers and students shows that interaction among students and with teachers had a beneficial effect on translation output quality, critical thinking, and cooperation among students. In other words, task-based projects promote social interaction between learners as well as between learners and teachers, and this interaction facilitates language acquisition (Leung et al., 2004).
Task-based language teaching and cooperative learning share similarities. Both provide structuralized frameworks for instructions: pre-task, during-task and post-task stages in task-based language teaching (Nunan, 2004; Sachs et al., 2003; Willis & Willis, 2007) and structured grouping of learners in cooperative learning (Kagan, 1994). Both also promote interaction through group and pair work. And learners are encouraged to take control of the learning process, including taking responsibility for the final output of the project. The two teaching methods may build on each other creating a synergy effect, especially in an environment where students share different levels of proficiency.
3. Flipped Learning in the Subtitle Translation Classroom
Flipped learning is an “inverted” learning process where the order of the traditional teaching/learning process, i.e., the instructor’s lecture in the classroom followed by student review/homework, is “flipped.” It presents a learning format in which students may acquire new knowledge on a topic before engaging in classroom activities. In other words, students preview the assigned material at home, followed by review and application in the classroom through activities including discussions, projects, and problem-solving activities. Students learn major concepts of a lesson by previewing uploaded video clips which serve as the basis for the lessons in class. The strength of such process is that learning is based on voluntary and active student participation, allowing more in-depth and detailed learning to take place in the classroom.
Flipped learning is an effective instructional format to teach the technical skills required for subtitle translation (Kim, 2019). As already stated, subtitling adds an additional layer to traditional text translation—the use of editing software. This extra dimension often becomes a burden to students who are faced with an unfamiliar working platform on top of having to translate between languages which they have yet to fully master.
As a gentler way to introduce an unfamiliar and a seemingly daunting technology to students, a step-by-step tutorial is provided online so that students may review the material at their own pace and as often as they wish. The topics and skills chosen for flipped learning often require repetitive practice, and students are allowed to set their own learning pace depending on their prior knowledge and experience. Thus, skills whose proficiency level among students is different are optimal candidates for a flipped learning-based lesson since uneven student capabilities can be smoothed through preview and review of the material provided to the students (Choi & Lee, 2024).
Demonstration videos provide a detailed tutorial on the use and application of subtitling software including general rules, requirements, and conventions of subtitle translation. With a general understanding of the technical elements of the subtitling process, students arrive in class with the knowledge and understanding of the work format. Empowering the students with such knowledge early on is important in that this gives them a sense of control over this new unfamiliar process (Díaz-Cintas, 2008). As a result, class time is devoted to applying the knowledge to practical use through individual and/or collaborative work, and students get to internalize the pre-requisite knowledge they have learned before entering the classroom (Toto, 2021).
Technology plays a crucial role in flipped learning, and the same could be said about the role of flipped learning in the acquisition of technological skills. By assigning a task with a clear learning objective for the students before arriving in the classroom, flipped learning sets itself apart from the traditional teacher-led classes. Therefore, flipped learning is a teaching method that can take advantage of technological advancements and promote self-directed and self-motivated learning.
4. Technology and Subtitle Translation
The advent of the digital era has transformed the assumptions applied to translation work. No longer is it sufficient for translators to simply translate from one language to another. Translators are faced with the demand of becoming more adept to technological changes of the industry, as they are often expected to execute video encoding, convert video formats, and process programs (Capitani, 2016).
Cerezo-Merchán (2018) presents a classification of translation competences specific to audio-visual translation: contrastive, extralinguistic, methodological and strategic, translation problem-solving, and instrumental competences. Of these competences, instrumental competence refers to the ability to work with subtitling software, and the level of technological literacy is a particularly important element in the training of subtitle translation as translators are expected to possess the ability to work with a wide range of subtitle software, multimedia files, and web architectures (Carroll & Ivarsson, 1998).
Advancements in computer capacity and related digital technology make it not only much simpler to work with images and sound but also affordable thanks to the distribution of readily available free software. While some language service providers are equipped with their own proprietary software tools for professional translators, the vast majority of those working independently take advantage of free open-source subtitling software that are accessible to all subtitlers, both professional and amateur, to download online. Subtitling freeware is known as the major contributor behind the rapid development and distribution of subtitles on the Internet, allowing subtitlers to create and distribute their translations online.
A study conducted by Díaz-Cintas (2014) introduces the functionality and capability of interfaces as well as subtitling freeware used in the professional subtitling community. Opportunities open for amateur subtitlers in cyberspace provide grounds for devising new approaches by educators. Proposals for cloud-based lesson plans also show the utility of cloud-based platforms in subtitle training environments where students can learn to carry out a wide range of tasks (Bolaños-García-Escribano et al., 2021). The study presents a case study which includes the use of professional web-based systems in subtitling practice/training and suggests that cloud subtitling may serve to bridge the technological gap between the translating profession and academic institutions.
Traditionally in Korea, audio-visual lessons have been taught from a theoretical stance and usually focused on the analysis of translated films. Rules and conventions including spatio-temporal limitations are introduced in class, but practice sessions tend to put more weight on translating dialogue lines, paying more attention to the accuracy of the content than actually placing the translated subtitles on the screen and examining the final output. Such approach rooted in the theories and fundamentals of semiotics or didactics of audio-visual translation falls short of dealing with the reality and practices of the industry.
The constant evolution of audio-visual media clearly brings challenges to translation programs at universities. The close relationship audio-visual translation has with technology poses an additional burden on the instructor as the subtitle translation curriculum is forced to keep up with the constant technical development and change. This also clearly poses a challenge to educational institutions, as the risk of outdated teaching is probably greater for audiovisual translation than for any other form of translation.
New technology brings in new types of communication, and the translation teaching community must also adapt to this highly specialized type of translation and new working environments. The technological dimension of audiovisual translation has grown in significance in today’s digitalized world, and the students’ audio-visual translation competence hangs on the capability of academic programs to offer students the opportunity to learn and familiarize themselves with the necessary skills which they can immediately put to use. A student-centered approach based on carefully devised step-by-step hands-on instructions will help foster learner confidence and empowerment as they navigate through this constantly evolving territory of human-machine interaction.
III. THE STUDY
1. Sample Lesson Design
The lesson presented in this study is a product-oriented empirical plan with several two-fold features: translating print and audio-visual texts, working on content and technical skills, and engaging in individual work and group projects. Ideally, an entire course should be dedicated to audio-visual translation to provide sufficient theoretical knowledge, profession-oriented topics, and hands-on practical sessions for students to work on tasks of linguacultural and technical complexity. However, most undergraduate foreign language programs have limited resources to offer a course which exclusively teaches subtitle translation.
The objective of the audio-visual translation lesson in this study includes developing translation skills to work on a wide range of styles and registers in the media world. A careful selection of materials and systematically devised exercises are key in achieving this aim. The subtitle production process includes analyzing the semiotic relationship between text and image, creating a transcript, producing a gist translation, learning to use a software, working on spotting and text segmentation, adjusting the translation to meet the specifications, etc. Students are expected to gain confidence and learn the theory as well as the practical skills of subtitling while expanding their knowledge on the linguistic features in the process. In addition to the idiomatic and syntactical features of language, students also learn to deal with elements specific to subtitling, such as wordplay, the handling of humor, taboo language and sociocultural references.
The lesson plan was designed for a translation course for English major students at the undergraduate level in the spring of 2023. The course comprised of eighteen students (14 female, 4 male, 12 junior and 6 senior undergraduate students), and the subtitle translation lesson took place for four weeks out of a fifteen-week course. Details of each step are as follows.
1) Acquire Background Information Through Translating Print Text
Before embarking on the subtitle translation project, students translated sections of an essay that provided background information of the two shows that were to be used as audio-visual material. The materials used in the course were an essay titled From Mary to Murphy (Rebeck, 1989) and episodes from TV sitcoms series The Mary Tyler Moore Show (Baldwin, 1972) and Murphy Brown (Kellman, 1989).
The essay compares two shows which aired in the 1970s and 1990s and touches on changes in women’s roles in American society by examining the transformation of female characters starring in the sitcoms. Included in the essay are parts of episodes that were used in this study, and segments that directly relate to the episodes and parts that were considered crucial in understanding the characters of the show were selected to be translated.
While the period of the two shows appears somewhat outdated, the underlying theme (women’s role in society) remains as an important issue in contemporary society, and the two series are considered classic for its content and humor in American society, still enjoying wide viewership on cable TV channels. Another factor taken into consideration was having to find material which does not already have subtitles for students to refer to. Most recent audio-visual material already provides subtitles produced either through authentic channels or fansub, and it was extremely difficult to find a source that could be used as teaching material.
Translating an essay related to the audio-visual material serves a dual purpose; it not only gives students the opportunity to gain background knowledge but also engage in another major component of the translation class—the translation of print material. Furthermore, the selected essay is a great example of comparison writing as it shows in an effective and logical manner how the two shows differ and what commonalities they share. Both the print and audio-visual materials selected for this lesson are self-contained and may be used separately as material for independent lessons. Thus, tying in the essay into the audio-visual translation lesson successfully serves the educational purpose in that it utilizes a well-written print material while linking it with a different type of material. The organic arrangement of the two mediums in the lesson is expected to create synergy and produce an outcome greater than the sum of the two.
2) Preview Rules and Conventions of Subtitling and Technical Skills Through Online Tutorial Videos
In addition to ensuring accuracy of the delivered message, another important factor in audio-visual translation is the compliance with the rules and conventions of subtitle production. Students must learn to abide by the rules and formats when working on subtitle translation (Díaz-Cintas, 2008). Understanding and applying the specific usage of line breaks and punctuations, for instance, is important “to create subtitles that can be easily read and understood, one of the golden rules is that they are semantically and syntactically self-contained” (Díaz-Cintas, 2008, p. 100).
As part of flipped learning, video tutorials on the software programs were created and posted online for students to view before the class. Principles and guidelines published by Netflix were adopted for this project.1 While each subtitle service provider may operate under its own guidelines, the general features and rules do not vary drastically among service providers. Therefore, getting used to the rules of a provider with a wide distribution network is a safe place to start. Figure 1 is a screenshot of a video session presenting guidelines from Netflix.
Subtitle Edit was used for timecoding and creating a SubRip Subtitle (SRT) file. Although some subtitle service providers are equipped with their own cloud-based platforms and allow translators to focus only on the translation task, translators are often asked to timecode the translated text using a subtitle software and create an SRT file. A variety of subtitle software exists online free of charge and operates on a more-or-less similar mechanism. Therefore, Subtitle Edit is only one of the many freewares available online, and once users grow accustomed to one software, they may choose whichever software that suits their needs and preference later on. While students are assumed to have studied the preview materials provided in advance, the subtitling guidelines and the maneuvering of Subtitle Edit are reviewed again in the classroom with the instructor. Figure 2 is a screenshot of a tutorial of a subtitling software, Subtitle Edit. The video presents instructions on how to maneuver a range of features to facilitate the work process, for example, a text box, in-and-out time codes, an indicator of the subtitle duration and display rate, a video player which shows the simulated subtitles, an audio waveform bar, a toolbox to edit the subtitle, etc.
3) Work Individually and as a Group to Produce a Subtitle File
In the classroom, students engage in subtitle translation (English to Korean) and editing tasks. First, the students view the entire episodes of both sitcoms before being divided into groups. Students are provided with a script in the original language (English). Students are then divided into two groups to translate one of the two sitcoms. Once the students are assigned to a group and an episode to translate, the group is divided again into subgroups. The subgroup divides the assigned portion among the members, and students start translating the portion assigned to them while referring to the conventions and rules of subtitling. For example, the eighteen students in the study were divided into two groups with nine members each and assigned an episode to translate. The group was divided again into three subgroups with three members each. In the case with The Mary Tyler Moore Show, the episode was divided into three sections—8’25”, 8’24”, 8’43” each—and three subgroups consisting of three students each were assigned a section to translate. While each subgroup was given the freedom to choose any working arrangements to complete the task, students generally appear to prefer dividing the assigned section among the group members and engage in individual translation before combining the sections to submit their final work.
Each subgroup must keep an open communication channel with other subgroups working on the same sitcom to discuss the terms, mode of speech, and the content to clear up any uncertainties or ambiguities in order to prevent any discrepancies or inconsistencies when the entire episode is merged and compiled. Needless to say, the same is true of interaction and feedback among the members within the subgroup. In this class, students were encouraged to participate in discussions via group chats and/or exchanging comments on Google docs saved to the cloud. To ensure participation of all group members and to fend off “freeloaders,” a peer assessment, conducted in the final phase of the project, was included as a component of their final grades. An example of the group and individual work process is outlined in Figure 3.
4) Analyze the Subtitles and Provide Feedback
Once each subgroup submits the SRT files, the instructor merges the video files and creates a complete translated episode for each sitcom. The instructor reviews the translated subtitles and compiles the errors - semantic, linguistic, mechanical, etc. The errors are analyzed and categorized to identify discussion points of pedagogical value. Examples include translation errors/translationese, omission, cultural references, speech-subtitle coordination, manner/style of speech (honorifics, informal speech), mechanical errors (misspellings, word division, notation), editing errors (line break, word cluster, word limit), etc. The instructor presents issues which emerged during the analysis so that students may take note while viewing the episodes showing subtitles they have produced.
5) View the Entire Episodes With Subtitles In-Class
As the final step, students watch the entire episodes of the two sitcoms. This gives students the opportunity to witness their work having a real purpose—as material which may potentially be distributed to the public. The discussion and feedback presented in advance by the instructor also help students become aware of points of improvement in their work.
IV. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
1. Analysis of the Subtitles
Subtitles created by the students were analyzed and points of discussion were compiled and categorized by the instructor. Among the data that were collected, feedback focused on the following areas.
1) Translation Errors/Translationese
Example 1
Original script: He’s put 47 miles on that car just in the driveway!
Student translation: 글쎄 애가 속도를 75 킬로미터로/놓고 달리더라니까?
Correct translation: 집 앞 골목에서만/47 마일을 달렸다고!
Example 2
Original script: I used to have a clutch!
Student translation: 옆에서 클러치를/잡아줘야 했다고!
Correct translation: 클러치는 다 나갔고!
Back translations of the Korean subtitles into English are “He was driving at 75 miles an hour!” and “I had to hold the clutch at his side!” The scene depicts Murphy Brown complaining about a teenager (“Louis”) driving her car in the driveway, not explaining to the handyman how Louis drove in the past. The error occurred because students failed to make a link between the sound of a car screeching outside and Murphy Brown’s remarks.
Example 3
Original script: All I ever wanted to do was to be a good reporter.
Student translation: 난 좋은 기자가 되기를/바란 것이 전부였어요.
The above Korean subtitle is an example of translationese, i.e., a pattern corresponding to systematic differences in the translated text from the original text. It occurs when translation replicates the patterns of the source language including syntax, semantics, and discourse at the expense of naturalness and readability. The Korean subtitle reads like a word-for-word translation of the original text, thereby impeding readability.
2) Omission
Example 4
Original script: Right, and will there be anything else and would you like your coffee now?
Student translation: 네. 그 밖에 더/필요하신 건 없으실까요?
The Korean subtitle left out “Would you like your coffee now?” The remaining portion should have been presented on a separate screen.
3) Cultural References
Example 5
Original script: Uh, Randy, listen, I have been looking for the Valley Spring Project folder. I’ve looked under “V.” I’ve looked under “S,” and I’ve even looked under “P.” And I don’t seem to be able to find it.
Student translation: [제가 밸리 스프링 프로젝트/기획안을 찾고 있는데요.][ㅂ, ㅅ, ㅍ 항목까지/다 찾아보았는데][도무지 찾을 수가 없어요.]
Example 6
Original script: It’s right where it belongs, under “T” - the Valley Spring Project.
Student translation: [기획안이니까/ㄱ 항목에 있어요.][‘기획안: 밸리 스프링/프로젝트’니까요.]
Example 7
Original script: Uh, no, Randy. It’s “Valley Spring Project comma, The.”
Student translation: [아니에요 랜디씨][밸리 스프링 프로젝트/하고 기획안이에요.]
Example 8
Original script: I never could understand that. I mean, it seems so silly.
Student translation: 왜 그렇게까지 하는 건지/이해가 안 가요.
Example 9
Original script: Well, listen. Are you telling me that you filed everything beginning with the word “the” under “T”?
Student translation: [잠깐만요. 그러면 지금/모든 기획안을][다 ‘ㄱ’ 항목에/넣었다는 말이에요?]
Much thought and creativity were put into working on this section. The challenges of this segment lie in how to deal with the reference to the Roman alphabet. The subtitles successfully preserved the alphabetical element by applying the Korean writing system in the translation. The transfer of cultural elements was made without making the subtitles sound unnatural.
4) Speech-Subtitle Coordination
Example 10
Original script: And we only serve one kind of lettuce. Its name is iceberg.
Student translation: 양배추도 아이스버그라고/딱 한 종류만 취급한다.
The restaurant owner mentions “lettuce” first before “iceberg.” However, the subtitle reversed the order, creating dissonance between the subtitle and the audio cue. Whenever possible it is always recommended that the original order be preserved. A note of caution: When translating a widely used language, over-condensing to the degree of omitting certain information or over-elaborating may raise doubt from the viewers, especially when translating from a well-known language such as English. Any “obvious” discrepancies between the oral and translated subtitles may easily be detected by the viewers and result in negative perception of the translation as a whole. To prevent such an outcome, translators should leave in terms that are similar in both languages and follow as much as possible the syntactic structure of the source text to secure the synchronization and rhythm of the original utterances.
5) Manner/Style of Speech (Honorifics and Informal Speech)
Example 11
Original script: Either this one or that one. It doesn’t make any difference to me. You decide.
Student translation: 얘든 쟤든 누구를 뽑던지/상관없으니까 네가 정해라.
The manner in which Lou addresses the interviewees is too informal. The terms used here are rarely used with whom we are not in friendly terms. It could even sound rude. In addition, the way Lou gives instructions to Mary also sounds too authoritative and oppressive.
6) Errors (Misspellings, Word Division, and Notation)
Example 12
Original script: This is my third one.
Student translation: 이번 까지 하면 세 번째야.
Example 13
Original script: Feeb!
Student translation: 이 쪼다야 !
Example 14
Original script: Well, yes, sir.
Student translation: 알겠어요.
Examples 12 through 14 show errors in word division (A space between “이번” and “까지,” and “쪼다야” and “!”) and notation (two periods after “알겠어요”). While these errors do not impede the understanding of the subtitles and may be considered minor, they give grounds for the audience to question the overall authenticity of the translation since such mechanical errors make the subtitles look unprofessional.
7) Editing Errors (Line Break and Word Limit)
Example 15
Original script: I wouldn’t be surprised if we all ended up working for him one day.
Student translation: 조만간 저희 상사가/돼도 놀라지 마세요.
While the above subtitles observed the sixteen-letter-per-line limit, the line break is made on an awkward position. The logic behind the break on the screen is to arrange the two lines in similar lengths, which is desirable whenever applicable. However, the natural flow always takes precedence, and “조만간 저희 상사가 돼도/놀라지 마세요” is the better choice in this case.
Example16
Original script: They don’t understand how much I love and respect the people I work with.
Student translation: 언론은 내가 얼마나 동료들을/사랑하고 존중하는지 이해하지 못해.
The second line exceeds the sixteen-word-per-line limit. The solution is to place the subtitles is two separate screens to observe the word limit.
Example 17
Original script: I feel a little better now. Thanks.
Student translation: 덕분에 기분이/나아졌어요.
The two lines should be merged into one since the total number of words is within the sixteen-word-per-line limit.
2. Collaborative Groupwork and the Flipped Classroom Resources
As the success of the project was predicated on the interaction and feedback among the group members, students engaged in lively and voluntary discussions throughout the task. Students opened group chatrooms and uploaded works to cloud asking for feedback and/or offering answers (see Appendix). The discussions included, but not limited to, discussing overall plan and scheduling, format, rules/conventions, and content/expressions. Rather than focusing solely on their individually assigned portions, students offered help to each other in order to create a final product that maintained quality and consistency throughout the script. The scope of communication further expanded to interaction among subgroups. Students understood that their final goal was to submit an entire episode consisting of works of other subgroups, not simply the work done on an individual basis or by a single subgroup.
Material for the flipped class was posted online for students to access freely on their own accord. Students came to class prepared to apply the background knowledge they acquired in advance. The utility of the flipped material was reflected by the number of online visits students made before and during the project phase. A total of 181 visits were made on a posting that contained three audio-visual file links (4’49”, 7’49”, 14’32”) and two attached documents. While the number of visits made by each student cannot be identified, the total figure shows that the materials were referenced multiple times and thus served their purpose. This dramatically reduced class time consumed to explain the rules/conventions and maneuvering of the software. Instead of giving a detailed presentation, instructors need only to give a rundown of the process and review critical technical issues.
V. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Subtitle translation tasks present an optimal setting for implementing task-based cooperative learning in the classroom. The lesson in this study starts with students engaging in individual tasks on print translation to build background knowledge and move on to an audio-visual material assigned to them. Students are presented with a specific task with a specified goal as they engage in subtitle translation. They get to develop a wide range of skills of practical value should they choose to pursue a career in subtitle translation. Later on, their works are combined to form a final output. By expanding the scope of the project from an individual task to a greater coordinated work including other members, students naturally engage in active and constructive discussions and learn to cooperate with others to produce a final product.
In today’s culture, peer work utilizing collective intelligence is becoming increasingly important, and subtitle translation offers the perfect environment for students to put this approach into practice. A shift from the traditional instructor-to-learner classroom setting to an environment where students take the initiative in the learning process is a great example of independent learning. As effective learning takes place in an interactive learner-centered classroom in which “the learning process is a matter of collaboratively acquiring (and co-creating) the language and behavior of a social group” (Kiraly, 2000, p. 29), students can be expected to emerge from the educational experience as semiprofessionals. The translational skills required in the process give students a chance to write, rewrite, proofread, and control the quality of the translation as they transfer messages to an audience across different cultures. The end-result is an authentic product presented to a real audience.
Analysis of the final product shows that errors committed frequently by students at the initial stage were those typical of users who are not familiar with audio-visual translation. Most pertained to errors related to format, i.e., line breaks, segmentation, word limits or punctuation. Such errors can be corrected through feedback from peers during group work and are expected to improve with more experience. Considering the lack of previous experience in subtitle translation among students, technical issues and errors were expected.
Translated subtitles are expected to deliver a semantically accurate message of the original dialogue while at the same time abiding by the given spatial and temporal restrictions and guidelines. It is important to stress that the subtitles should preserve as much as possible the rhythm and length of the original when delivering the message. Ideally, subtitles on each screen should display a clear structure avoiding any ambiguity. Carefully segmenting and arranging the message on the screen is an element characteristic of subtitle translation. Students’ knowledge of sentence structures is reinforced as they work on segmentation of the sentence as they concurrently work on meaning and form. Subtitles are produced in a fragmented fashion and appear in isolation with one part of speech appearing and disappearing before the next segment appears on the screen. While it is technically possible for viewers to retrieve information by back-tracking, this is generally not how videos are viewed. For subtitles to be easily and quickly understood, subtitles must appear in a way that is self-contained, both semantically and syntactically. Timecoding and line-breaks should be carried out so that clusters that form units which are logically, semantically, and grammatically sound appear on the same line. The use of subtitling software gave the students an opportunity to learn hands-on how to produce subtitles that appear natural, syntactically sound, and self-contained on the screen.
Another crucial point when working with subtitle translation is related to culture-bound terms. Cultural references pose a challenge in subtitle translation as subtitles become an increasingly important medium in the dissemination of diverse cultures to global audiences. The so-called “extralinguistic cultural references” (Ramière, 2007) are terms referring to customs, people, places, gastronomy, and organizations that are deeply rooted in the other’s culture but are unknown to the target viewer. These terms, when translated for subtitles, may take the form of literal rendition or total recreation
In this study, the efficacy of flipped learning materials was deduced from the frequency of the online visits made by the students to retrieve information. Further examination on the student satisfaction level through surveys/interviews and quality assessment on the flipped learning component will further validate the use of flipped learning as an instructional tool. In addition, an in-depth probe into the students’ view on the efficacy of cooperative learning as well as an analysis of student interaction would offer insight into the issues students are concerned with during subtitle translation.
The motivational aspect of learning is another area worth exploring in future research. Although not included as a research point in the current study, augmented student motivation is also an important advantage to subtitle translation. According to Blane (1996), interlingual subtitling is a great motivator for learners because it “engages students’ interest and enthusiasm, promotes confidence and security, fosters development of L2 learning strategies and translation strategies and offers additional benefits in the form of transferable skills, relevant to the professional activities of the present and future” (p. 186). A quantitative analysis on the actual changes in the attitudinal and motivational levels of students will further strengthen the need to introduce flipped learning and task-based cooperative learning in the subtitle translation classroom.
The didactics of audio-visual translation and its potential as a tool for foreign language learning should be understood by language departments at the undergraduate level as an opportunity to achieve their educational goal of enhancing language proficiency of the students while fitting students with a skill they may choose to utilize as an extra benefit. Kruger (2008) asserts that subtitle translation offers a pathway “firstly to expose students to the benefits related to the constant need for creative translation solutions, often requiring agile lateral thinking skills, and secondly to introduce them to subtitling as a possible field of specialization” (p. 79).
A shift from the teacher-centered translation lesson to a class where students take the center stage also means a change in the role of the teacher whose role as a moderator becomes a critical element in the process. As a mediator between the learners and technology, the instructor’s role in the entire process is crucial, as he/she must always monitor closely all the activities taking place in the classroom; communication among students, work progress being made, the quality and content of the subtitles produced, the peer-review process, feedback on student performance, assessment of the final product, etc. For the entire process to run smoothly the instructor must prepare a step-by-step plan with clearly stated guidelines including, but not limited to, a detailed schedule, relevant class materials, specific tasks to be executed, a clear assessment criteria including peer assessment.
This article argues for the need to incorporate project-based sessions in audio-visual translation training to equip students with technological literacy and instrumental competence and suggests flipped learning as a potentially effective pedagogical approach. The blended and interactive instructional format implemented in audio-visual translation modules is one way to better incorporate the changes taking place in the media translation industry where technological literacy and instrumental skills have become essential skills.
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